The Expression of the Soul by Means of the Brain and Body Is What We Call the Art of Living

Search for a hypothetical soul and its location

Galen's description of the torso told through "pneuma" or what was understood to be the soul

The search for a hypothetical soul and its location have been a discipline of much speculation throughout history. In early medicine and anatomy, the location of the soul was hypothesized to be located within the body. Aristotle and Plato understood the soul as a corporeal form only closely related to the physical world. The Hippocratic Corpus chronicles the development of thought that the soul is located within the body and is manifested in diseased conditions. Later, Galen explicitly used Plato'south clarification of the corporeal soul to physical locations in the torso. The logical (λογιστικός) in the encephalon, the spirited (θυμοειδές) in the heart, and the appetitive (ἐπιθυμητικόν) in the liver. Da Vinci had a similar approach to Galen, locating the soul, or ssenso comune, as well as the imprensiva (intellect) and memoria (memory) in different ventricles of the encephalon.^[ane] Today neuroscientists and other fields of science that deal with the body and the mind, such equally psychology, span the gap between what is physical and what is corporeal.

Ancient Egypt [edit]

The primeval theory pertaining to the location of the soul is thought to come up from Ancient Egypt during the third millennium BC. Ancient Egyptian civilizations held the conventionalities that the soul was equanimous of several parts: the Ba, Ka, Ren, Sheut, and the Ib. Furthermore, the Ib was located in the heart, and considered the vital force that brought human beings to life. Because the Ib was as well responsible for thoughts and feelings, its condition determined a person'due south fate upon their expiry. This took place during a center weighing ceremony, in which Anubis would feed the heaviest hearts to the demon Ammit. It is believed that the Ancient Egyptian view of the heart formed the foundation for later theories on the location for the homo soul.^[ii]

Hippocratic Corpus [edit]

The Hippocratic Corpus and its many treatises demonstrate the evolving knowledge of the trunk and how to treat ailments in reference to the soul.^[3] The treatise on Diseases II physicians are warned nigh the illnesses associated with air in the body, particularly in the lungs causing the patient to coughing vigorously and hoarsely.^[iii]

"διαπνειν δοΚει δια στηθεοζ"

translated as "the patient is animate through their lungs".^[3] The next lines detail that this is an extremely serious fourth dimension condition for the patient and was a cause of great business. To remedy the air in the lungs the md was advised to clear out the lungs of all air that was possible using a bladder and hosing.

Later in the Corpus, during or after the life of Aristotle on Illness IV, pneuma, or air is presented as a warming life forcefulness. In the treatise On the Sacred Disease air is described as not being located in just the lungs just in the entire torso and circulating it giving life.^[iii] According to the treatise the first location of the air is to the brain and it describes that medical weather of the brain can exist acquired by a blockage of air menstruation there.^[three] Aristotle in his works refers to pneuma being straight related to the soul.

Plato [edit]

Plato, the student of Socrates and instructor to Aristotle, suggests in Timmeus that the human soul was divine in nature, and that information technology entered the human being trunk after separating from a spiritual origin that information technology would return to upon death. Furthermore, Plato believed the soul to be a tripartite one, composed of the logos, the thymos, and the epithemitikon. In society to protect the immortal soul from contamination, the perishable souls, the thymos and the epithemitikon, were separated from the head by the neck. The thymos, responsible for feelings such every bit rage, bravery, and hope, was located in the chest crenel. The epithemitikon, which controlled desires and unconscious thought, was located near the bellybutton, farthest from the logos. The brain, so, was the seat of all rational thought, the logos, and the true location of the immortal and divine soul.^[4]

Aristotle [edit]

In De Spiritu Aristotle links the idea of pneuma and the soul straight together saying that "Pneuma is connected to the soul" that, "it is the souls main driving force".^[v]

Aristotle in De Anima (On the Soul) suggests that organs of the torso are required for the soul to interact with. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed the soul's being was not separate from the homo body, thus the soul could not be immortal. Similarly to Plato, however, Aristotle believed the soul is composed of iii parts: the vegetative, sensitive, and rational. Growth and reproduction is a issue of the vegetative soul, and is found in all organisms. The sensitive soul, however, allows for awareness and movement in humans and animals. The third, the rational, is exclusive to humans, and allows for rational idea.^[vi]

In volume II, Aristotle states that, the soul is the part of the human that allows its entire being, that ane can't be without the other and they complement each other. In book 3 he provides an case of his theory of the soul and makes the correlation between the physical sensations of light the phaos in the body and the corporeal imaginations phantasia.^[7] Aristotle imagined the soul every bit in role, within the homo body and in function a corporeal imagination. In Aristotle's treatise On Youth, Old Historic period, Life and Death, and Respiration, Aristotle explicitly states that while the soul has a corporeal grade, at that place is a physical expanse of the soul in the human being body, the heart. Aristotle states the heart is the location of the 5 sensations of the trunk and is directly responsible for respiration and the sustenance of life.^[8] The heart is of further importance as information technology is all animal's expanse of heating the body and blood and the cosmos of pneuma, or life force that animates the body.^[eight] To Aristotle this explains why expressionless things become cold, exercise non breathe, and that their souls have left them. Considering the heart is the location of the human soul and life force, it is the organ of utmost importance in Aristotelian physiology. Correspondingly, the heart is the first organ to appear during embryonic development.^[four]

Epicurus [edit]

Epicurus, with a view reflecting that of the Greek philosopher Democritus, suggested that the homo soul was corporeal and equanimous of small particles spread out within the entire trunk. Epicurus believed that the separation of these pocket-sized particles resulted in a loss of awareness, and consequently, decease.  Like Aristotle, Epicurus was of the opinion that the soul was a result of the body, making information technology mortal and perishable.^[two]

Herophilus [edit]

Image depicting the tertiary and fourth ventricle–Herophilus thought every bit these were the seat of the soul.

In the third century Herophilos in Alexandria was 1 of the first anatomists to perform dissections of the man body for the brief fourth dimension that it was legal.^[9] Herophilos discovered many novel aspects of the human body, specifically in the brain and associated tissues.^[ten] The works of Herophilus were lost in the burn down of Alexandria of 391 Ad and therefore we only know of his being in other surviving works. Most of the medical terminology and works are recorded in the books by Galen and therefore the reliability that Herophilus actually thought to the soul to be in the trunk is in question.^[10]

According to the recordings of his work, Herophilus thought that the location of the soul is in the brain, specifically in the ventricles of the brain, the 4 open cavities in the innermost parts of the encephalon. Herophilos describes the stardom of the soul and natures as being intertwined within the body and while are separate things, cannot be without the other. Herophilos in his dissections discovered the differences between nerves and claret vessels.^[10] Fretfulness carried the pneuma or soul to breathing the body and the vessels being related to nature. Following the lines tracks of the nerves through the body he saw that they all converge in the brain, and by Herophilus' reasoning the ventricles of the encephalon.^[10] Of particular importance to the location of the soul was the 4th ventricle of the brain.

Herophilus observed that there existed ii types of nerves, those that functioned in motor action and those that take in sensory information. Considering all nerves are a continuation of the spinal string and the cerebellum, which are located virtually closely to the 4th ventricle, it stood to reason that the center of motility and perception, and thus the soul, must be located in the 4th ventricle.^[ii]

In his treatise, On Beefcake, pneuma was inhaled by the lungs and sent to the encephalon ventricles via the vessels of the body where the brain would convert it into what he chosen "psychic pneuma", or the soul, and produce thought, motion and all other animations of the body. Herophilus discovered the bumpy attribute of the walls of the ventricles of the brain that he called the choroid plexus and which was thought to be the interaction of the brain with the pneuma to create the psychic pneuma and then these were sent out via the nervous system.^[ix] He further identified 8 of the cognitive nerves and tracked them to the spinal cord and throughout the body. The choroid plexus is the term still used today and are the structures that produce cerebrospinal fluid.^[11]

Galen [edit]

Galen was ane of the about foundational physicians in history and is known for careful and detailed vivisection and dissections of animals that was foundational to modern medicine. Galen was known for his treatises on being both a medico and a philosopher and was well versed in the works of Plato. His medical beefcake is described through the use of Plato's corporeal ideals of the soul. The center was the spirited, the liver the appetitive, and the encephalon the logical.^[12] Later on, Galen moved to Rome where he carried out vivisections on pigs and monkeys to detect their pulmonary circulation. He was the first scientist to distinguish the physiological difference between the arteries and the veins. Galen restricted himself to the scientific explanation of blood flow and respiration.

Galen states in On Respiration and the Arteries "one must determine by dissection that the number and nature of the structures that connect the heart to the brain" and information technology was observed that when these nerves were cut in animals they would lose their voice and when veins were cut they would bleed, but retain their voice.^[13] Therefore, the brain does not need the center to experience or create sensations and the heart does not need the encephalon to move. Galen recognized the importance of both the eye and the brain in the proper functioning of a human but saw these as ii singled-out systems governed separately.^[13] Therefore, there are two souls in combat, the brain representing the logical soul and driving logical being, the centre representing spirited deportment of movement and impulse constantly at odds with each other and supplied by different supporting systems.

Galen states the "liver is the archai" or the source of the veins and blood of the body and is therefore important in regards to the appetitive soul, but does little to elaborate further on the reason for its connection on why this makes it appetitive.^[13] He continues to conjecture that the "spleen purifies the liver" but does not while the spleen does not purify the liver information technology highlight the anatomical connections of the human body.^[14] Galen addresses that the proof for the liver is not every bit obvious every bit information technology was in the case of the heart and the brain.^[13]

Galen also made a focus on the view on nature. He agreed with ancient doctrine of the four elements which includes the earth, water, wind and the fire to embody the cold, hot dry and wet irreducible qualities. This made a correspondence to the essential torso humors which includes the blood, the black bile the phlegm and the yellow bile. The humor had to get their origin from the foods' elements. The Physiology of Galen started with the diet. Food was transformed in the blood and the blood was afterwards Trans mutated into the tissues' flesh, the human body yet constituted of more of hungry organs. Information technology had both the vitality and the warmth. Information technology was in a position to move voluntarily. It also had thoughts. Therefore, the claret was avital spirit overlaid on the natural spirits or the nutritive. The natural spirit originated from the food and the potable, the origin of the vital spirit was from the atmospheric air . The veins carried the natural spirits while the arteries carried the vital spirits. The heart was centrally located. The heart organ played a role in mediating the substitution of the blood which was in the vein and the air in the arteries. The body was as well provided with innate heat by the eye. The heart was non a pump. It was a manufactory and a smelter's furnace. The rest of the parts of the body and their actions resulted from the 4 elements combination, the humors and the qualities. Galen made a proposal of natural faculties' theory in which every part of the torso had the ability to retain, attract its nutritive humors as well every bit expelling the excrements. Therefore, the flow of materials within the trunk parts seemed to exist post-obit a gradient of both the attractive and the expulsive powers.

He likewise made reaffirmation about the heart as a source of innate heat of the body "The eye is, as it were, the hearthstone and source of the innate heat by which the animal is governed." He as well fabricated a careful observation of the physical properties which were unusual. He described the heart to exist a very difficult flesh which could not be hands injured. The hardness, the tension and also the general forcefulness together with the resistance to injury contributed to a unique belongings of the heart. He also made an argument about the expansion and the contraction of the heart which made a heart an intelligent organ for playing such a role. The complexity of the fibers of the heart also was prepared to carry out several functions: getting to enlarge when it was to attract what was useful, getting to squeeze the contents in which it had attracted and also getting to contact when information technology was due time to expel the residue. However, Galen was too bold, He contradicted other scientists in the matters which concerned the detailed Beefcake such the Aristotle'south which stated that the middle was a point origin of the nerves. He further made an statement that the heart was simply a secondary organ which was adjacent to the liver organ in its operation because information technology was not site responsible in the production of the humors. His ideas predominated until the mid of seventeenth

Plotinus [edit]

The Egyptian philosopher and father of Neo-Platonism, Plotinus's idea of the human soul would form the foundation for the Christian view of the human soul. Similar Plato, Plotinus believed that the soul resulted from an immortal being that would return to its divine source upon expiry. Plotinus believed in 2 parts of the soul, a higher level rational role and the lower level portion located in the entire torso.^[two]

Plotinus saw the soul every bit a tool of universal structure and one of ii parts of the human grade: body and soul. ^[15] He saw the soul as what was responsible for life and for there to be beingness after death, the soul could non exist in the body. However, the body was necessary for the soul to exist. Therefore, there was a duality to the roles of the soul among Plotinus' philosophy. The soul played an important part in merging with the 1, the "ultimate object of desire".^[fifteen]

Plotinus created three stages to reaching the goal of "attaining union with the I".^[15]

Phase ane: Render to 1'southward true self as soul [edit]

This phase involves gaining command of your own body through Plato's civic virtues and detachment from textile goods. Hither you recognize yourself as soul, "a divine reality independent of trunk and prior to it".^[fifteen]

Phase ii: Attaining the life of divine intellect [edit]

This second stage involves embracing the higher processes of the soul and abandoning the electric current way of thinking. Since the soul is a span between the homo class and reaching the One, the thinking processes of the soul and its divinity will elevator you closer to the One.

Phase three: Wedlock with the One [edit]

The concluding step is an abandonment of all things i has learned before. Since the Ane is above all knowledge, linguistic communication, and reasoning; it must be a personal journey to unite.

As Plotinus himself put it:^[15]

Therefore 'it cannot be said' or 'written', he says [Plato, Letter 7, 341c], but we speak and write, sending on to information technology and wakening from words [or explanations] towards contemplation, as if showing the style to him who wishes to come across something. For teaching extends to the road and the passage, but the vision is the work of him who has decided to meet.

Thomas Aquinas [edit]

Thomas Aquinas sought a Christian view of the soul using the ideas of Aristotle. In Aquinas's view, the soul was incorporeal and immortal, and came almost as a direct result of divine intervention from God, which typically came about during the 2nd trimester of pregnancy.  At this signal, the fetus would have the ability to perceive and move, the outcome of being given a soul.^[ii] Every bit such, beingness incorporeal, though "infused" in an unknown fashion to the body, and being the "form" of the torso in a platonic sense, the soul has no location, and therefore cannot be "located in" the body every bit one locates an organ. This is the typical understanding of the soul found in the Catholic Church building today.

Leonardo da Vinci [edit]

Leonardo da Vinci used his feel in the field of anatomy to hypothesize that the soul was located in the optic chiasm, near the tertiary ventricle of the encephalon.^[sixteen] His views were supported past observations of change in perception following disturbances to that particular expanse of the brain.^[2]

Da Vinci'southward search for the soul fell into three phases: Early Concepts, Personal Quest, and Synthesis.^[ane]

Phase i: Early Concepts [edit]

From his 1487 experiment of pithing frogs, Da Vinci honed in on the medulla as the location of the soul:^[ane]

the frog instantly dies when its spinal medulla is perforated. And previously information technology lived without heart or any interior organs, or intestines or peel. Here therefore, it appears, lies the foundation of movement and life.

Phase 2: Personal Quest [edit]

In this 2nd phase, Da Vinci began examining the nervous organization and how they connected with the skull. This phase is when he stated that the soul was located slightly above the optic chiasm, in the anterior portion of the 3rd ventricle.

This phase also establishes the role of the soul in the body according to Da Vinci. Da Vinci saw the soul equally ruling over all of the senses, he states, "The Soul appears to reside in the seat of judgement, and the judicial part appears to be in that identify where all the senses come together, which is called the 'senso comune'."^[1]

Phase 3: Synthesis [edit]

This final stage involved farther report into the anatomy of the brain. Da Vinci used wax to fill the ventricles of an ox brain in order to have a physical model of the location of the "senso comune" too every bit ii other landmarks, the imprensiva and memoria. ^[1]

René Descartes [edit]

Descartes accepted Plotinus'due south perspective on the dual nature of the soul. According to Descartes, the soul conferred the ability to think; this differentiated humans from animals, who had no ability to call back or fifty-fifty feel.^[6] Yet, Descartes believed that the physical trunk and the listen must be physically continued at some betoken. Descartes' reasoning came from his ascertainment that every structure of the brain is paired except for the pineal gland. He felt that the pineal gland must be the meeting point of the physical body and the mind, and therefore, the pineal gland must be the location of the soul.^[17]

Traditional Chinese philosophy [edit]

In wuxing, the 5 Shen are housed in the five yin organs (also known every bit zàng (脏)) as follows:^{[ citation needed ]}

• The eye houses or stores the shen (神)
• The lung houses or stores the po (魄)
• The liver houses or stores the hun (魂)
• The spleen houses or stores the yi (意)
• The kidneys houses or stores the zhi (志)

See too [edit]

• Soul dualism

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Del Maestro, Rolando F. (November 1998). "Leonardo da Vinci: the search for the soul". Journal of Neurosurgery. 89 (5): 874–887. doi:10.3171/jns.1998.89.five.0874. ISSN 0022-3085.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Santoro, Giuseppe; Wood, Mark D.; Merlo, Lucia; Anastasi, Giuseppe Pio; Tomasello, Francesco; Germanò, Antonino (2009-x-01). "The Anatomic Location of the Soul from the Center, Through the Brain, to the Whole Body, and Beyond". Neurosurgery. 65 (4): 633–643. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000349750.22332.6A. ISSN 0148-396X. PMID 19834368.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} Thivel, Anthoine (2005). Air, Pneuma and Animate from Homer to Hippocrates. The netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. pp. 239–249. ISBN978-9004144309.
4. ^ ^{a b} Crivellato, Enrico; Ribatti, Domenico (2007-01-09). "Soul, listen, encephalon: Greek philosophy and the nascency of neuroscience". Brain Research Message. 71 (iv): 327–336. doi:x.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.09.020. ISSN 0361-9230. PMID 17208648.
5. ^ Bos, A. P.; Ferwerda, R. (2008-06-25). Aristotle, On the Life-Bearing Spirit (<i>De spiritu</i>). Brill. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004164581.i-209. ISBN9789047432685.
6. ^ ^{a b} Osler, Margaret J., 1942-2010. (2010). Reconfiguring the world : nature, God, and human agreement from the Center Ages to early modern Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN978-0-8018-9655-2. OCLC 476834538. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
7. ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | On the Soul past Aristotle". classics.mit.edu . Retrieved 2018-07-23 .
8. ^ ^{a b} Ross, David (1942). Psychology: De anima. Parva Naturalia. Indiana University: Oxford University Press.
9. ^ ^{a b} Heinrich Von, Staden (2007). Herophilus: the art of medicine in early Alexandria. Cambridge Academy Printing.
10. ^ ^{a b c d} J.Chiliad.S., Pearce (Summer 2018). "The Neuroanatomy of Herophilus". European Neurology. 69 (5): 292–295. doi:10.1159/000346232. PMID 23445719 – via Karger.
11. ^ Plog, Benjamin A.; Nedergaard, Maiken (2018-01-24). "The Glymphatic System in Central Nervous System Wellness and Disease: By, Present, and Future". Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease. xiii (1): 379–394. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-051217-111018. ISSN 1553-4006. PMC5803388. PMID 29195051.
12. ^ Hankinson, R. J. (1991). "Galen'due south Beefcake of the Soul". Phronesis. 36 (2): 197–233. doi:10.1163/156852891321052787. JSTOR 4182386.
13. ^ ^{a b c d} Furley, Wilkie, David, J (2014). Galen on respiration and the arteries: an edition with English translation and commentary of De usu respirationis, An in arteriis natura sanguis contineatur, De usu pulsum, and De causis respirationis. Princeton NJ: Princeton Academy Press.
14. ^ Mebius, Reina East.; Kraal, Georg (August 2005). "Construction and function of the spleen". Nature Reviews. Immunology. v (8): 606–616. doi:10.1038/nri1669. ISSN 1474-1733. PMID 16056254.
15. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Soul and Body - Oxford Scholarship". oxford.universitypressscholarship.com. doi:10.1093/0198751478.003.0002. Retrieved 2020-12-02 .
16. ^ Pandya, Sunil K. (2011). "Understanding Encephalon, Mind and Soul: Contributions from Neurology and Neurosurgery". Mens Sana Monographs. ix (ane): 129–149. doi:10.4103/0973-1229.77431. ISSN 0973-1229. PMC3115284. PMID 21694966.
17. ^ Descartes, René. (2016). The Passions of the Soul and Other Late Philosophical Writings. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. ISBN978-0-19-150707-6. OCLC 1119642197.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_location_of_the_soul

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